Cameroon and Nigeria agree on joint oil exploration in Bakassi region

Bakassi Peninsula (source: Stratfor)

Cameroon and Nigeria have initiated talks to jointly exploit oil overlapping borders around the Bakassi peninsula, chief mediators of both countries told Dow Jones Newswire on Friday 11th March.

The decision to begin joint oil exploration was made at a meeting of a joint commission of the two countries set up by the UN following the 2002 International Court of Justice (ICJ) ruling on the Bakassi peninsula.

After years of dispute, Cameroon took Nigeria to the ICJ in 1994 over various territorial issues including that of the Bakassi region. Nigeria argued that the peninsula should be awarded to it because of its 'historical claim'. Nigeria had been administering the peninsula and most of its inhabitants were Nigerian fishermen and their families.

Despite this, the Court ruled in 2002 that the peninsula belonged to Cameroon based largely on early twentieth century Anglo-German correspondence which established that the boundary lay to the west of the peninsula.

The ruling was not easily accepted by many within Nigeria, but in 2008, they ceded the peninsula to Cameroon. A commission was established to demarcate the border between the two countries as per the ICJ ruling and it appears that good progress is being made.

Cameroon's chief negotiator, the country's Vice Premier Ali Ahmadou, said: "Work is complete on our maritime demarcation, but this is not the case with exploitation of the oil wells crossing the borders. This is an important issue which we've to pursue and reach a level of agreement for joint exploitation of the oil reserves by our two countries."

The chief Nigerian negotiator, Prince Bola Ajibola, sounded positive on the agreement reached. "This time around, there's been cooperation and good understanding between our two countries to come together and jointly exploit the hydrocarbons deposits that we've on our common borders."

"The exploited hydrocarbons will be for the mutual benefits of both of us,” said Ajibola, adding "we think such exploitation will become faster, cheaper and easier when both of us have one company to do the operations."

Canadian exploration company, Addax Petroleum, has been tipped to do the cross border oil drilling. The Dow Jones Newswire quoted an unnamed Cameroonian official familiar with the negotiations as saying, "Addax Petroleum is likely to do the crossborder oil drilling for us and our brotherly nation, Nigeria. You know, Addax operates both in Cameroon and Nigeria and knows the territory very well."

Exploration is likely to start this year.

Sources: Dow Jones Newswire, Wall Street Journal, AllAfrica

Menas Borders worked on the 2002 ICJ court case. For more information on the case, please see our website, here.

Russia to deploy air defence missils to Kuril Islands

S-400 missiles are to be deployed on the Kuril Islands

Tensions remain high between Russia and Japan as Japan ups the rhetoric, and Russia ups the military presence on the disputed Kuril Islands.

Relations hit a stumbling block in November 2010 when Russian president Dmitry Medvedev visited one of the Kuril Islands, the first Soviet or Russian leader to do so, and pledged more investment for the region. In televised meeting last Wednesday, 9th February, Medvedev upped the stakes by referring to the Kuril Islands as 'part of Russia' and saying that his country's 'strategic presence' on them would be 'stepped up'.

Speaking last week about Medvedev's November visit, Japanese prime minister Naoto Kan referred to this as having constituted an 'inexcusable rudeness'.

This prompted a hardening of the Kremlin's position, and the head of the presidential administration, Sergei Naryshkin, responded by saying that Russian leaders “will continue visiting Russia's regions, including the Kuril Islands.”

The recent row was prompted by Russian defence minister Anatoly Serdyukov's visit to the islands last week. Crisis talks between Russia and Japan ended in failure last Friday, 11th February when Tokyo reaffirmed its claim and Moscow accused its neighbour of extreme behaviour.

On Tuesday 15th February, a high-ranking official in the General Staff of the Russian Armed Forces elaborated on Medvedev's military message, saying that short and long range air defence missiles, including the advanced S-400 Triumf system would be deployed to the southern Kuril Islands.

This move caused outrage in Japan, but also prompted criticism from a senior Russian military commander. Major General Sergei Popov, chief of the Air Force Antiaircraft and Missile troops, said the deployment was overkill.

"Given the proximity of the state border, it is inexpedient to deploy a Space Defense Force brigade with S-400 systems on the Kuril Islands," he said.

Japan gained full control of the island chain in the 1875 Treaty of St Petersburg, but lost it to the Soviets in the closing stages of the Second World War. The issue has remained unresolved since, and the two countries are still technically in a state of war.

Sources: Tribune Magazine, Ria Novosti, AFP

For more information on this dispute, see the Menas Borders website, here.

Systematic rape continues on Angola-DRC border: UN

UN envoy Margot Wallstrom

Systematic sexual violence continues to be carried out against Congolese women and girls caught up in mass expulsions from Angola to the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), a UN envoy said on Friday, 11th February.

Community leaders recorded 182 reported rapes in seven villages along the border in January alone, while a UN assessment mission confirmed 1,357 reported rape cases in one village in a six-to-eight-month period last year, said the official, Margot Wallstrom.

"My findings strongly suggest that sexual violence is systematically being carried out against Congolese women and girls in the context of expulsions from Angola to (Congo)," said Wallstrom, who visited the area on Sunday, 6th February.

"Many of the survivors who I spoke with confirmed that these violations occur in detention facilities in Angola as well as on the Congolese side of the border," she said in a statement.

"Women recounted that they were raped by uniformed security forces during expulsion from Angola," Wallstrom said, adding the figures had probably been under-reported.

The rapes first came to light last November when a report by the UN children's agency UNICEF, seen by Reuters, said that more than 650 people had suffered sexual violence during expulsions from Angola to Congo in the previous two months.

Tit-for-tat expulsions between Angola and Congo reached an estimated 211,000 people in 2009.

Angola helped Kinshasa's government fight off Rwandan- and Ugandan-backed rebels during fighting between 1998 and 2003, which drew in several neighboring countries.

But deteriorating relations between the two countries followed disputes over border demarcation, offshore oil ownership and closer relations between Congo and Rwanda and Uganda, its neighbors to the east.

Wallstrom, UN special representative on sexual violence in conflict, called on Angolan and Congolese authorities to investigate the rape allegations "as a matter of urgency."

"I intend to engage closely with both the government of Angola and (Congo) on this issue, and expect them to cooperate to find a solution to this grave violation of human rights," she said.

In a separate statement, Wallstrom praised Congo's government for taking action over alleged mass rapes in eastern Congo. Eleven soldiers accused of raping more than 60 women on 1st January in the town of Fizi went on trial at a military court on Thursday 10th February.

Rape, murder and pillage have been endemic for years in Congo, where more than 5 million people died during the 1998-2003 conflict. In one case that prompted an international outcry, at least 303 people were raped in the eastern town of Luvungi between 30th July and 3rd August last year by rebel militiamen.

Source: Reuters

For more information on this dispute, see the Menas Borders website, here.

 

Japan-Russia Kuril island row escalates

Hokkaido rally on 7th February

Japan's Prime Minister Naoto Kan led a large rally Monday 7th February demanding the return of several islands held by Russia since the end of World War II and calling the recent visit there by Russia's president an outrage.

The dispute over the southern Kuril islands, known in Japan as the Northern Territories, has long been a sticking point in relations between the two countries and has kept them from signing a formal peace treaty ending their World War II hostilities.

Japan has designated 7th February as "Northern Territories Day," saying that a treaty dating back to that day in 1855 supports its claim to the islands.

Kan was the top speaker at a government-backed rally of about 1,500 people in Tokyo that has been held annually since 1981 to mark the anniversary. He vowed that Japan will not back down from its claim and said visits there by Russian leaders are "an unforgivable outrage."

A smaller rally and march were held on the northern island of Hokkaido.

Russia's position on its own claim appears to be getting more assertive in recent months.

Russian President Dmitry Medvedev became the first Russian or Soviet leader to visit the islands when he toured them in November. Defense Minister Anatoly Serdyukov inspected military garrisons on the islands last week and said Moscow is planning to upgrade the troops' weapons there.

Both trips generated sharp protests from Tokyo, which claims that the Soviet army occupation of the territory just before Japan's surrender in 1945 was an act of illegal aggression.

The islands are surrounded by rich fishing grounds and are believed to have offshore oil and natural gas reserves, plus gold and silver deposits. They lie as close as six miles (10 kilometers) to Japan's Hokkaido island and are also near undisputed Russian territory.

Japan's foreign minister is scheduled to visit Moscow from Thursday and the islands dispute is likely to be at the top of his agenda.

Progress is not expected, however, according to the China Post.

Russia has said that it is tired of discussing the issue. Medvedev said after his visit that he considered the islands part of Russia's sovereign territory and will return there whenever he pleases. Japan's Kyodo news service reported that following the protest over the defense minister's visit, Russia's foreign ministry said it was growing weary of the matter.

Russia is seeking increased economic ties with Japan, and has tried to keep the territorial issue separate from economic relations. But Japan has been slow to embrace fuller trade and growth without progress toward an agreement on the islands.

Japan also has longstanding disputes over islands with China and South Korea.

Rival claims to the Senkaku islands in the East China Sea swelled into a major diplomatic dispute late last year after the captain and crew of a Chinese boat operating near the islands was taken into custody by the Japanese Coast Guard. All were later released without charges.

Source: the China Post

For more information on the Kuril islands dispute, please see the Menas Borders website, here.

Diaoyu islands manuscript sells for US$2 million

A hand-written document believed to be of a missing part of a Chinese literary work which showed the Diaoyu Islands as being part of China, was auctioned for 13.25 million yuan (2 million U.S.dollars) in Beijing in December 2010.

The item was hand-written by Qian Meixi, a calligrapher in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). It is believed to be a copy of the fifth chapter of "The Six Chapters of a Floating Life" of Shen Fu, a writer and painter also from the Qing Dynasty.

However, the book's final two chapters, the writer's autobiographical narrative, were missing.

The document recorded Shen Fu's trip to the Diaoyu Islands and the Ryukyu Islands in 1808. It included a section saying the Diaoyu Islands were part of China. Japan, however, has said it had first discovered the islands in 1884.

The buyer, surnamed Wu, left immediately after the auction. "It was a very quick decision," he told Xinhua by telephone. "I believed this is a very valuable document and I just don't want it to fall into the hands of others, particularly foreigners."

Since the document concerns China's territorial sovereignty, the auction rejected bids from foreigners, as per legal requirements.

Peng Ling, a book vendor from Pingyao in the northern Shanxi province, originally bought the hand-written scripts at an antique market in Nanjing, capital of eastern Jiangsu province, in the autumn of 2005.

Peng said he rejected an offer made by a Japanese citizen to buy the scripts for 10 million yuan in December 2009.

"I'm a descendant of the Chinese nation. The Japanese can't take it away, even with 100 million yuan," he said. "The scripts must stay in China."

Japan and China have a longstanding dispute over the ownership of the Diaoyu islands (known as Senkaku islands in Japan).

Source: Xinhua

For more information on the East China Sea dispute, see the Menas Borders website, here.

Afghanistan, Iran sign pact to improve border trade following fuel truck standoff

Fuel trucks waiting to enter Afghanistan

The Afghan government says it has signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with Iran to improve cross-border trade following last month's blockade of fuel trucks headed into Afghanistan.

Iran had restricted fuel deliveries to Afghanistan after discovering that some of the fuel transited to the country was being supplied to US-led forces.

Since March 2010, about 400 tons of fuel has been transited through Iran to Afghanistan. Iran started blocking fuel trucks' entrance into Iran in late December. 2,500 fuel trucks were affected, and the price of fuel in Afghanistan allegedly jumped 70 per cent.

On Monday 31st January, however, relations appeared to be on the mend, as Afghan Finance Minister Omar Zakhilwal signed the MoU in Tehran. The Afghan ambassador to Tehran, Obaidullah Obaid, thanked Iran for allowing the transfer of fuel to the country and promised that the supplies would only be used by the Afghan people, according to Iran's Press TV.

Zakhilwal told AP that the two countries have agreed to expand business, trade, and the transit of goods over their common border.

Source: Associated Press, Press TV

For more information, see the Menas Borders website, here.

Egypt moves to define eastern Med borders to boost gas claims

Sameh Fahmi

Egypt's Petroleum Ministry is reported to be considering claiming a stake in the big natural gas fields discovered in the eastern Mediterranean while Greece, a potential customer, has begun exploratory talks on moving the gas to the European market.

The Egyptian newspaper Al-Masri al-Youm Tuesday 25th January quoted Minister of Petroleum and Mineral Resources Sameh Fahmi as saying the Cairo government is "studying the precise coordinates of the maritime borders in order to determine our share of the reserves." 

That implied that Egypt, already the main natural gas producer and exporter in the eastern Mediterranean, may find itself at odds with Israel. 

It signed a historic peace agreement with the Jewish state in 1979 but it's largely been a cold peace even though Cairo exports gas to Israel. 

The gas finds off Israel's northern coast, made in 2009-10, have already drawn accusations by Beirut of Israeli encroachment into Lebanese waters and threats of violence from both sides. 

But the potential for conflict is even wider. The US Geological Survey reported in 2010 that the Levant Basin, stretching from the Jordan River into the eastern Mediterranean, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, Lebanon and Syria, could contain up to 122 trillion cubic feet of natural gas. 

"These discoveries have added a new, hitherto unseen dimension to the Arab-Israeli conflict," observed analyst Walid Khadduri, former editor of the Middle East Economic Survey, a prominent energy industry newsletter. 

"This geopolitical dimension is not limited to the Israeli-Palestinian or Israel-Lebanese disputes … but will also encompass several other Arab countries, particularly those that export natural gas, and especially in the event Israel intends to export to European markets." 

Khadduri, writing in the pan-Arab daily Al Hayat, noted that "preliminary contacts in this regard have already started with another source of gas being made to available to gas-thirsty Europe … a source that overlooks the Mediterranean directly, obviating the need for pipelines crossing several countries, as it can be exported as liquefied gas." 

"The current disputes …are somewhat old. What is new, however, is the competition over gas markets." 

Israel's gas bonanza offers geopolitical opportunities as well as perils. 

The Jewish state is negotiating with Cyprus, most of which is ruled by Greek Cypriots, and with Greece about transporting gas to them and on to the vast European market. 

Greek Minister of Investments Haris Pamboukis said Saturday 22nd January that Athens is conducting exploratory talks with Israel about moving gas from the main Israeli gas field, Leviathan, to Europe. "We're a natural road to the Balkans and Europe," he said. 

But Egypt may be a more natural partner. It already has a liquefied natural gas terminal on the Mediterranean coast where tankers carry the LNG to Europe, Asia and North and South America. 

It is conceivable - although far from certain given the prevailing relations between Israel and Egypt - that the Israelis might find it convenient to export their gas in liquid form through Egypt rather than engage in costly undersea pipelines and other infrastructure. 

Egypt has proven gas reserves of 77 trillion cubic feet, three times Israel's estimated reserves, and is established as the main gas producer in the eastern Mediterranean. It serves Jordan, Lebanon and Syria as well as Israel. 

According to the US Geological Survey, Egypt's Nile Delta Basin could contain as much as 223 trillion cubic feet of gas. 

"Israel has several potential export options of its own but all would pose technical and, often, political challenges," observed Simon Henderson, director of the Gulf and Energy Program at the Washington Institute for Near East Policy. 

"Greece has been mooted as a possible market, perhaps by undersea pipeline; India is another potential market; and the Russian giant Gazprom is currently proposing a joint venture," Henderson wrote in a 4th January analysis. 

"Israel's most commercially viable option might be to export surplus gas as LNG, converted via existing facilities in Egypt." 

He concluded that the energy developments in the eastern Mediterranean, long a US preserve, mean that Washington "needs to pay careful attention, since these … offer opportunities for U.S. companies as well as the potential for friction between US allies."

"Although the amounts of gas discovered so far seem unlikely to change the world, they could certainly change the eastern Mediterranean." 

Source: UPI

For more information on the eastern Mediterranean, see the Menas Borders website, here.

Mexico holds talks with Costa Rica and Nicaragua on river border dispute

Mexican secretary for foreign affairs, Patricia Espinosa

As Costa Rica and Nicaragua await the first part of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) decision on their border dispute case, specifically the alledged Nicaraguan military presence on the disputed Calero and Portillos islands, Mexican-led talks continue in an effort to find a diplomatic solution.

The 'facilitation' exercise took place in the Mexican city of Cuernavaca on Wednesday 19th January and involved representatives from Mexico, headed by secretary for foreign affairs, Patricia Espinosa, and her Guatemalan counterpart, Haroldo Rodas holding broad-reaching talks with delegations from both Costa Rica and Nicaragua.

The Costa Rican delegation was headed by Melvin Saenz, while Nicaragua was represented by Denis Moncada. The Costa Rica delegation and the Nicaraguan delegation did not speak directly, although in a joint statement issued at the end, they thanked Mexico for its hospitality and expressed their appreciation to Guatemala for offering to host the second meeting of the facilitation exercise.

The facilitation exercise is being seen as a political mechanism that is taking place in addition to the ICJ process. The ICJ is expected to produce a judgement on the first issue on question – Nicaragua's military presence – in the coming weeks, while the other issues – Nicaragua's dredging of the San Juan river, and the construction of a canal in the area, which Costa Rica is saying is causing environmental damage – will likely take a few years for a judgement to be made.

While local media is reporting the talks as a success, the fact that the two sides will not engage in direct discussions with each other suggests resolution is a long way off. A statement released by the Costa Rica's Foreign Ministry on Monday 17th January said the they would not have direct dialogue with Nicaraguan officials while troops remained on the Isla Calero.

Costa Rica has gone on the offensive in recent weeks as Foreign Minister Rene Castro makes the round of European cities garnering support. He has confirmed that Germany's foreign minister has offered him support in the conflict. Castro has also visited the UK, where he met with British UN Ambassador Henry Bellingham to discuss he 'grave destruction' caused by the Nicaraguan troop presence on 17h January. He also met with the UK's Energy Secretary Chris Huhne to discuss the conflict.

Costa Rica has also taken steps to increase the security along their border. Public Security Minister José María Tijerino announced last week that work had begun in late December to enhance security along three Costa Rican rivers that join the San Juan River. They have set up heliports where the Colorado, Saripiquí and San Carlos rivers join the San Juan to facilitate government air traffic and to monitor security along the border. Tijerino also said that they planned to install fences around the river deltas and build new roads to provide better access to border regions.

Prime Minister Laura Chinchilla also said recently that the number of police on the border would likely increase in coming months. The Costa Rican moves come hot on the tails of a new defence-law package in Nicaragua, which is likely to result in the further militarisation of the Nicaraguan border.

Sources: Tico Times, Inside Costa Rica, ISRIA

For more on the Nicaragua-Costa Rica dispute, see the Menas Borders website, here.

Costa Rica and Nicaragua present border cases at ICJ

The Costa Rican delegation at the ICJ

Costa Rica and Nicaragua have made their opening arguments regarding their border dispute over the San Juan River to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in The Hague.

The hearings started last Tuesday, 11th January, when Costa Rica accused Nicaragua of engangering the stability and peace between the two countries and asked the court to rule that Nicaragua must remove their troops from their 'illegitimate' occupation of the Isla Calero. The Costa Rican contingent, headed by foreign minister Rene Castro, also asked the court to rule that Nicaragua must cease the 'imminent and irreparable environmental damage' being caused by Nicaragua in the border region.

Nicaragua responded in the afternoon of the 11th, arguing that Costa Rica 'creates a dispute' every time Nicaragua begins work on the San Juan River. Nicaragua's ambassador to the Netherlands and main representative at the hearing, Carlos Arguello, also attempted to discredit the claims that Nicaragua 'invaded' Costa Rican territory by arguing that the dispute was caused by a lack of well-defined borders.

This is not the first dispute between the Latin American neighbours over the San Juan River. In 2009 the ICJ ruled that while the San Juan River was Nicaraguan territory, with the bank constituting the border, Costa Rica had the right to free navigation.

Both sides are claiming they have the upper hand in the dispute. Foreign minister Castro said on Tuesday that he was feeling very confident. “There has been irrefutable damage done to Costa Rican territory and we feel the court has heard our argument. Our presentation is very consistent, as it has been since this issue began.”

Costa Rica's President Laura Chinchilla echoed Castro's words. Speaking to the press on Tuesday afternoon, she said, “We are very pleased with the results of the proceedings this morning and the case presented by Costa Rica at The Hague.”

“The more the world knows about this situation, the more the world will favor Costa Rica,” she added.

Castro has remained in Europe, and is said to be making the rounds of a number of European cities to garner support for Costa Rica's position.

The Nicaraguans, however, are feeling similarly confident. Well-known Nicaraguan conservationist and presidential advisor Jaime Incer said Cost Rica was surprised by the 'brilliant' presentation made by Arguello.

“The arguments presented by Nicaragua were overwhelming and well presented and made Costa Rica's foreign minister doubt his own belligerent position,” the Tico Times reported Incer as saying.

“I think that in the first round, Nicaragua refuted Costa Rica's phantom arguments, and that gives us lots of hope.”

Nicaraguan representative Arguello has been quoted as saying he was sure that the Court would not approve the provisional measures requested by Costa Rica, and noted that Costa Rica itself was not positive about it.

Hearings took place from Tuesday January 11th to Thursday January 13th. The court is now deliberating, and a decision is expected sometime this week.

For more information on the dispute, see the Menas Borders website, here.

Border Focus: Sudan

The Southern Sudan Independence Referendum is due to begin on 9th January 2011, but how did Africa’s biggest country come to the point of being split in two?

What is disputed?

Problems in the Sudan stem from poorly thought out colonial borders and policies, and essentially what is disputed is the role of the south and other peripheral areas of the country within the larger Sudanese nation.

The dispute is often portrayed as fight between regions (north vs south) or ethnicities (Arabs vs black Africans), but it perhaps more useful to see it as a fight between the centre and the peripheries, between those holding the power and those marginalised from power.

As a result, while the likely independence of Southern Sudan will solve the marginalisation of the south, it will not solve the problems of other groups in the north who have also been fighting against Khartoum for greater recognition.

What is the history of the dispute?

Even before the Sudan gained independence from Britain in 1956, people in southern Sudan and other areas away from Khartoum felt that they were being excluded from the political process.

The first civil war lasted from 1955-1972 and resulted in the Addis Ababa Accords which granted the south a degree of regional autonomy. This was rescinded in 1983, however, and the rise of Islamist powers in the north resulted in a second civil war breaking out in 1983. The southerners were represented mainly by the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A), headed by John Garang, but the SPLM also tried to represent other marginalised peoples, especially in the Blue Nile, Nuba Mountain and Darfur areas.

The war ended with the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) after 2 million people had been killed and even more displaced. The agreement provided for greater regional representation of some of the marginalised people and gave the SPLM control over governance in the south.

It stipulated a six year interim period in which both sides were committed to working for peace and unity and at the end of the period a referendum was to be held in the south in which the people could vote for unity or secession.

How successful has the CPA been?

The fact that the independence referendum is almost certain to result in southern secession makes it clear that the CPA has not been overly successful. The Power Sharing Protocol established under the CPA, designed to increased southern representation in the central government, and greater local representation in the state governments of Southern Kordofan and Blue Nile has been disappointing. Inclusion into the Government of National Unity has not led to the marginalised parties gaining greater influence over state policies. Many complain that the whole government is still under strict National Congress Party (NCP, formerly NIF) control.

Khartoum’s refusal to accept the decision of the Abyei Boundary Commission, and its blocking of the demarcation work of the boundary determined in the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague is seen as a sign that little will change for the South if independence is rejected.

Other problems have continued: the Sudanese army did not leave Southern Sudan until 2008, and has been accused of continuing aerial campaigns against the south. The International Crisis Group warned in September 2010 that the border region was dangerous militarised and border demarcation has still not been carried out in many areas.

What is the independence referendum?

The culmination of the CPA is the Southern Sudanese independence referendum, due to be held on 9th January 2011. All Southern Sudanese are eligible to vote, even if they live in the north or abroad. Numerous international countries have made provisions for voting, and the Southern Sudanese government has repatriated tens of thousands of southerners living in the north, amidst fears that they would be intimidated out of voting if they remained in the north.

Almost four million voters have been registered and at least 60 per cent of them must vote during the week long voting period for the referendum to be considered valid. A simple majority either way will decide the result.

The results will probably take some time to come in, and if the vote is in favour of secession, Southern Sudan will become a new country at the end of the interim period on 9th July, 2011.

This gives the two sides six months to deal with residual – and crucially important issues – such as oil revenues, water ownership and border demarcation. There have long been fears that Khartoum would try to interrupt the referendum process or that a vote in favour of independence could lead to war, but al-Bashir’s recent comments that he will accept the verdict either way is positive.

Another crucial issue is to do with the oil-rich border-straddling Abyei region. Abyei residents were meant to have their own referendum on whether to join the north or the south on 9th January, but this will not happen. Instead, its future is likely to be negotiated over by the GoS and SPLM.

What are challenges facing newly independent country?

If, as most analysts expect, Southern Sudan votes to become the first new African country since 1993, it will have huge issues facing it. The second civil war resulted in the deaths of some two million people, and huge numbers of southern residents have been displaced. The south has been ignored and underdeveloped since the colonial period and much of what infrastructure was there was damaged during the civil wars. Persistent food shortages have been an issue (for much of Sudan) since the 1990s, and will likely to continue to be so in the future.

While the south has access to most of the country’s water, it will be a landlocked nation, and will be dependent on the north for many things, not least for the pipelines to carry its oil to markets.

The political class in Juba, while having governed since 2005 is still relatively inexperienced, and corruption is already an issue. The pace of reconstruction has been incredibly slow, and the South has relied heavily in recent years on the World Food Programme, despite some $6 billion in oil revenues coming in.

The new countries leaders will also have a challenge in constructing an idea of national unity and identity. For most of the colonial period their authority has come from their rejection of Khartoum. When they don’t have anyone to blame for the problems any more, unity may be harder to engender.

That doesn’t mean, however, that the south would be better off staying with the north. The support the SPLM has received from its regional neighbours over the last few decades means that it is already to a certain extent integrated into the east African economy, and they will continue to have the goodwill – and more importantly the donor dollars – of the international community for coming years.

For the full history of the dispute, for more analysis, and for Menas Borders' expert report for the SPLM/A in the Abyei Arbitration, please see the full Border Focus, here.

Cambodian court hears Thai border crossing case

Panich Vikitsreth (2nd left) on his way to court

Seven Thai civilians arrested in late December for illegally entering Cambodian land have appeared in the Phnom Penh Municipal court on Thursday 6th January.

One of the arrested, ruling party MP Panich Vikitsreth told the court that he entered the disputed border area unintentionally. Most of the group were members of the 'Yellow Shirts', a nationalist group who advocates Thailand taking a tougher stand on border issues with Cambodia.

Each of the seven was questioned individually, with Yellow Shirt activist Veera Somkwankid the last to be examined.

Lawyers defending the Thais were waiting for details of charges levied against each of them, and said they could not file bail requests requests until the court delivered its verdict.

Because 7th January is a holiday in Cambodia, it is expected that the lawyers will file requests for the release on bail of the group on Monday.

Panich's lawyer Ros Aun said that Mr Panich told the court he had “crossed into Cambodian territory unintentionally.”

Speaking to AFP, Ros said, "He said he came [to the border area] because Thai people claim it is their land. He said he was walking without knowing that he was entering Cambodian territory and was captured by the authorities."

Relatives of the defendants, reporters and Thai embassy officials were not allowed inside the courtroom.

The seven were charged late last month with illegally crossing the border and entering a military area with ill will. The issue had threatened to derail improved relations between the south-east Asian neighbours, and Thai calls for the groups' immediate release have been ignored.

The issue has proved tricky for Thai Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva, who is known to be close to his MP, and it has been suggested that it was he who told the group to travel to the border area.

Thai Deputy Prime Minister Suthep Thaugsuban said Bangkok might seek a royal pardon for the seven if the court sentences them. They face a maximum sentence of 18 months in jail if convicted on both accounts.

No trial date has been set.

For more information, see the original menas borders blog on this issue, of the menas borders website for more on the Thai-Cambodian border dispute.

Visitors to Cambodia's Preah Vihear temple increase sharply in 2010

Tourists visiting Cambodia's Preah Vihear temple increased by almost four fold in 2010 thanks to good security and better infrastructure in the area, director of Preah Vihear province's tourism department Kong Vibol said on Saturday 1st January.

80,356 people visited the temple in 2010, up from 17,174 people in 2009, he told Chinese media source Xinhua by telephone. Of the figures, the domestic visitors were up 3.7 times to 78,419 from 16,405 and the foreign tourists increased by 1.5 times to 1,937 from 769.

"It's a huge increase of the tourists to the temple in 2010 due to better security and stability as the border tension with Thailand has been eased, and the good condition roads--easy to travel,"said Kong Vibol, adding "so visitors feel safe and more confidence to visit the temple."

Thailand and Cambodia had both claimed the eleventh century Hindu temple historically until it was awarded to Cambodia by the ICJ in 1962, based on a 1907 colonial era map. Thailand had been hoping to have the temple jointly listed by UNESCO, but in July 2008, it was enlisted as a World Heritage Site under Cambodian jurisdiction. Soon after a border conflict broke out over claims to the 1.8 square miles at the base of the temple that were not ruled on in 1962. Periodic clashes have broken out since and the border area in the region is heavily militarised. Thailand threatened to withdraw from UNESCO in July 2010 over Cambodia's new land management plans, and UNESCO's decided to put off deciding on the plans until 2011.

Keen to avoid violence, both sides have dedicated themselves to finding a diplomatic solution and the prime ministers of each country have met four times since September.

Given the uncertainty that surrounded the temple throughout July and August, it is perhaps surprising that the temple's tourist numbers were so strong. Perhaps the renewed attention the temple recieved as a result of the conflict boosted domestic tourist numbers as part of a show of nationalism and loyalty.

Thai access to the temple was blocked off as of June 2010, therefore the number of Thai tourists this year was likely to be very limited. In December 2010 however, Cambodia announced that they would reopen the border in the new year, thereby paving the way for increased numbers of Thai tourists in 2011.

In 2010, Preah Vihear province as a whole received 135,657 tourists, up 119 percent from 61,903 in 2009, Kong Vibol said. Of the figure, foreign tourists were up 32 percent to 11,249 from 8,512 in 2009.

Preah Vihear province has three ancient temples for tourists. They are Preah Vihear temple, Koh Ker temple and Preah Khan Kampong Svay temple.

Source: Xinhua

For more information on Thailand and Cambodia's dispute over the Preah Vihear temple, please see the menas borders website, here.

Top 10 Border Stories of 2010

2010 was a busy year in the border world: historic agreements were reached, conflict threatened, and as the year ended, all eyes were on Sudan.

1. Norway and Russia maritime agreement - April
2010 saw increased focus on the arctic region as the continued receding of ice makes oil and gas exploration increasingly tempting and shipping routes more plausible, and in April Norway and Russia came to an agreement over the Barents Sea. The agreement saw the extension of their maritime boundaries through 175,000sq km of previously disputed territory. The resulting 'Barents Sea Pact ' was signed by leaders of each country in September, and now require ratification by parliaments.

2. Slovenia's arbitration referendum - June
The lack of a firm maritime boundary agreement in the Piran Bay has been the main thorn in the sides of the former Yugoslav neighbours, and Slovenia had been threatening to block Croatia's EU entrance until the situation was resolved. In June, Slovenia voted in a national referendum to send the case to international arbitration, thereby creating a path for resolution.

3. Eritrea and Djibouti negotiation - June

The two year standoff between Eritrea and Djibouti over Ras Doumeira inched towards resolution when, in June, it was announced that both sides had agreed to a Qatar-mediated resolution process. The UN welcomed the move, but Eritrea's former master and regional enemy Ethiopia said Eritrea's actions should be viewed with caution.

4. Burkino Faso and Niger refer to ICJ - July

The African Union Border Programme encouraged all African nations to resolve their border disputes by 2012. Likely motivated by this, Burkina Faso and Niger decided to send their dispute over the central section of their border to the ICJ , and they jointly submitted their request in July. ICJ cases have a tendency to last for many years, and in an effort to avoid Nigeria-Cameroon style difficulties, Burkina Faso and Niger have established their own, very strict timeline, and have asked for a panel of experts to be appointed.

5. Thailand and Cambodia temple standoff - July-August
Cambodia's ownership over the eleventh century Preah Vihear temple was accepted by UNESCO in 2008, and tensions rose over the 2010 summer when Cambodia submitted new management plans for the temple and the surrounding area to the organisation. Thailand threatened to drop out of UNESCO, and both sides stepped up their military presence around the temple area. Diplomacy prevailed, and several rounds of talks have been held since.

6. China and India war of words - August
While both countries have tried to emphasise their good relations this year, problems remain between China and India over their disputed Himalayan border. In August, Beijing reportedly denied a visa to an Indian general on an official visit because he oversaw army actions in Indian-controlled Kashmir. India is said to have responded by freezing military exchanges, although exactly what was effected was not clear. Indian concerns over China's actions in neighbouring Burma and Pakistan continued throughout the year, and no progress was made in resolving the decade-long dispute over their shared border.

7. China and Japan island dispute - September
After a Chinese fishing trawler was intercepted and arrested in disputed waters near the Diaoyu (or Senkaku) Islands, relations between China and Japan reached a low. Anti-Japanese protests broke out across China, which continued, even after the captain and crew were released back to China a few weeks later.

8. Nicaragua and Costa Rica San Juan dispute - October

Nicaraguan dredging of the San Juan River, the border between the two countries, but which Nicaragua controls, caused Costa Rican concern, and they accused the Nicaraguan army of occupying some of their land. Reports that Nicaragua were acting based on Google Maps grabbed headlines, and Nicaraguan refusal to leave the land has resulted in the case being taken to the ICJ.

9. North and South Koreas' military clash - November-December
South Korean military execises in disputed waters around Yeonpyeong Island in late November provoked an artillery response from the North, which resulted in four South Korean deaths. South Korea continued to carry out the exercises, supported by US, and while Pyongyang promised further retaliation, they never carried it out.

10. Sudan's run up to the referendum - year long

Preparations for the 9th January 2011 Southern Sudan independence referendum progressed relatively smoothly, despite the South accusing Khartoum of delaying tactics, and Khartoum's displeasure at the presence of UN troops on the North-South border. Talks over Abyei brokedown, however, and it is extremely unlikely that the mooted separate referendum for residents of the oil-rich border region will go ahead. The start of 2011 is likely to see the creation of the first new African nation since 1993, but whether peace can be maintained is yet to be seen.

For more information on any of these stories, see the menas borders website, here.

WSRW anger at Kosmos's Western Sahara exploration

Kosmos Energy's blocks are offshore Western Sahara

Western Sahara Resource Watch (WSRW) has asked international banks to halt further funding of the US oil firm Kosmos Energy, according to a release from the group on 10th December. The company is exploring for oil offshore occupied Western Sahara.

The statement from WSRW said that should Morocco, through Kosmos, discover oil offshore Western Sahara, it will undermine the UN peace process in the territory, and risk destabilizing the fragile ceasefire in the region.

Western Sahara

The position of Western Sahara has been disputed for decades. After gaining independence from Spain, Western Sahara was divided between Morocco and Mauritania, but a group within the region, the Polisario Front, began a war for independence. Mauritania renounced its claims in 1979, and Morocco occupied the full territory. An International Court of Justice (ICJ) decision in 1975 and the 1991 UN Settlement Plan following a cease-fire upheld the right of the people of Western Sahara to hold an independence referendum.

Since then, talks and low-level disputes have continued, but the referendum has not occurred. Despite various settlement plans being put forward, certain sticking points remain that prevent any development on the region's fate. One of the central points is who would be allowed to vote in any referendum.

It has been reported that on the invitation of UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon's personal envoy Christopher Ross, representatives from Morocco, the Polisario, Mauritania and Algeria will meet from 16-18th December in Long Island, US, for the next round of talks. Talks were last held in early November 2010, when no agreement was reached.

Maritime control

While Mauritania renounced its territorial claims to the region in 1979 due to Polisario pressure, it did come to a maritime boundary agreement with Morocco which gave Mauritania control over some of the waters off of Western Sahara's shore, but hands the rest to Morocco.


WSRW said that according to the 2002 legal opinion from the UN Security Council Kosmos' actions offshore Western Sahara are illegal, yet despite this, Kosmos continues its exploration program.

While maintaining its program offshore Western Sahara, Kosmos is also the operator of a major oil find offshore Ghana. To develop the Ghana block, Kosmos earlier this year increased its project finance debt facilities by US$350 million, through agreements with Standard Chartered Bank, BNP Paribas SA, Société Generale, Crédit Agricole Corporate & Investment Bank, Crédit Suisse International, Citibank, NA, Natixis, HSBC, and FirstRand Bank Ltd.

WSRW has now appealed to these banks, as well as to International Finance Corp and Africa Finance Corp, to suspend further funding to the company.

“We believe that your financial support to the company is highly unfortunate. It is our opinion that the firm shows no respect for the community in which it operates. We call on your firm to take measures as a responsible financial institution and avoid any further financial support to Kosmos, including in Ghana, until the firm has introduced and implemented a CSR policy, and started to respect the fundamental principles of human rights”, stated WSRW in a letter to the banks this week.

WSRW has for several years urged Kosmos to leave the territory, to no avail.

“This small group of international banks has a golden opportunity to contribute in stopping an escalation of the conflict in Western Sahara. When the drilling in the occupied territory begins, the banks do not wish to be associated with this unethical firm. They need to address this issue with Kosmos while they still have a chance to do so,” stated Maiju Kaipiainen, chair of WSRW.

Kosmos carried out seismic surveys offshore Western Sahara in 2009.

Sources: Petroleum Africa, People's Daily

For more information on the situation in Western Sahara, see a menas borders briefing from 2009.

Border Focus: Eritrea and Djibouti

What is disputed?

At the centre of the dispute between Eritrea and Djibouti is a tiny strip of land at their border. The greater Horn of Africa region, however, has numerous border disputes.

What is the history of the dispute?

The accepted border is a result of a 1900 boundary agreement between colonial powers France (French Somaliland, now Djibouti) and Italy (Eritrea). They agreed that the international boundary starts at Cape Doumeira (Ras Doumeira) at the Red Sea and runs for 1.5km along the watershed devide of the peninsula. The 1900 protocol also specified that the Doumeira Island (Ile Doumeira), which lies just offshore, would not be assigned sovereignty and would remain demilitarised.

The border at Ras Doumeira was, however, never demarcated. The area itself is a hill, and it was simply agreed that the northern slopes of hill were Italian, the southern slopes, French. Upon independence, Eritrea and Djibouti accepted this arrangement.

The first major post-colonial dispute arose when, in April 1996, a Djibouti official accused Eritrea of shelling Ras Doumeira, and the two countries narrowly avoided going to war.
Problems arose again in 2008, when the Eritreans occupied the hilltop. The circumstances surrounding this event are somewhat disputed. Djiboutian sources report that in January, Eritrea requested to cross the border in order to get sand for a road, but instead occupied the territory, set up fortifications and dug trenches on both sides of the Djiboutian border. Djibouti also claimed that Eritrea had put out new maps showing Ras Doumeira as Eritrean territory.

Eritrean sources, however, note that Eritrean President Isaias Afwerki, met twice with Djiboutian officials, informing them that his country intended to build a demarcation on Ras Doumeira hill. It was not clear why Eritrea wanted to build such a demarcation, but it has been speculated that it might be connected to boundary disputes it has with other neighbours, including Ethiopia, Yemen and Somalia. It might also reflect Eritrea's discomfort with the presence of American and French bases in Djibouti; the main American base, 'Seven Sea' is less than 10km south of the hill.

Both sides fortified the hill and manned it with military personnel, and clashes between the two sides broke out in June 2008. Despite the military might of Eritrea, Djibouti's backing by the majority of the international community, including former colonial master France, meant that it was able to withhold the Eritrean forces. Still, 35 people died in the clashes and dozens of others were wounded.

After Djibouti requested UN intervention, a UN fact-finding mission was sent to the region. It was welcomed by Djibouti, but blocked by Eritrea, who refused to meet with it or with any envoy of UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon.

In January 2009, the UN Security council adopted Resolution 1862, which demanded that Eritrea pulled its forces from the disputed area, and welcomed Djibouti's withdrawal of its forces to its positions before the dispute. A further resolution, 1907, imposed an arms embargo on Eritrea, admonishing the country for its lack of progress on resolving the border dispute with Djibouti, and for arming Somali insurgents such as Al-Shabaab.

Resolution options?

In June 2010, the two countries agreed to a Qatar-led mediation process, a move that was warmly welcomed by the African Union and the UN, although Ethiopia questioned Eritrea's sincerity.

The fact that Eritrea agreed to Qatar's mediation effort is a positive sign that it wants to reintegrate into the world community. Eritrean President Afewerki was instrumental in starting the talks, and 2010 has seen him striking more conciliatory tones towards neighbours.

In September 2010, Isaias welcomed UN special representative for Somalia to Asmara for talks, and voiced his full support for a peaceful solution to Somalia's problems. Eritrea has also tried to forge friendships with Qatar, Iran, Israel and Egypt.

Eritrea is on the brink of a potentially lucrative gold mining boom, and seems to be worried about being isolated. Ethiopia used to use Eritrean ports for Red Sea access, but in recent years has preferred Djibouti. The potential revenues from shipping could be another incentive to improve its global reputation.

For more information on this dispute, including consideration of the regional context, see the full Border Focus, here.